Other Roman troops. "War Machine": the organization of the ancient Roman army

By the 3rd century BC. Rome became the strongest state in Italy. In continuous wars, such a perfect instrument of offensive and defense was forged - the Roman army. Its total strength usually amounted to four legions, that is, two consular armies. Traditionally, when one consul went on a campaign, the other remained in Rome. When necessary, both armies operated in different theaters of operations.

With the legions were allied contingents of infantry and cavalry. The legion of the era of the Republic itself consisted of 4500 people, 300 of them were horsemen, the rest were infantrymen: 1200 lightly armed soldiers (velites), 1200 heavily armed soldiers of the first line (hastati), 1200 heavy infantry made up the second line (principles) and the last 600, the most experienced warriors represented the third line (triarii).

The main tactical unit in the legion was the maniple, which consisted of two centuries. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion, one of them was at the same time the commander of the entire maniple. The maniple had its own banner (badge). Initially, it was a bundle of hay on a pole, then a cast bronze image of a human hand, a symbol of power, began to be attached to the top of the pole. Below, military awards were attached to the flagpole.

The armament and tactics of the Roman army in ancient times did not differ significantly from those of the Greeks. However, the strength of the Roman military organization was in its exceptional flexibility and adaptability: in the course of the wars that the Romans had to fight, they borrowed the strengths of the armies of the enemy and changed their tactics depending on the specific conditions in which this or that war was fought.

Infantryman's armament. Thus, the traditional heavy armament of an infantryman, similar to the hoplite among the Greeks, has changed as follows. A solid metal shell was replaced by chain mail or plate, lighter and less restrictive of movement. Leggings were no longer used, because. instead of a round metal shield, a semi-cylindrical (scutum) appeared, about 150 cm high, covering the entire body of a warrior, except for the head and feet. It consisted of a plank base covered with several layers of leather. Along the edges, the scutum was bound with metal, and in the center it had a convex metal plaque (umbon). On the legs of the legionnaire were soldiers' boots (kaligi), and his head was protected by an iron or bronze helmet with a crest (for a centurion, the crest was located across the helmet, for ordinary soldiers - along).

If the Greeks had a spear as the main type of offensive weapon, then the Romans had a short (about 60 cm) sword made of high-quality steel. The traditional Roman double-edged, pointed sword (gladius) has a rather late origin - it was borrowed from the Spanish soldiers when the Romans experienced its advantages in hand-to-hand combat. In addition to the sword, each legionnaire was armed with a dagger and two throwing spears. The Roman throwing spear (pilum) had a long (about a meter), thin tip made of soft iron, ending with a sharply honed and hardened sting. From the opposite end, the tip had an inflow, where a wooden shaft was inserted and then fixed. Such a spear could also be used in hand-to-hand combat, but it was designed primarily for throwing: piercing the enemy’s shield, it bent so that it was impossible to pull it out and throw it back. Since several such spears usually hit one shield, it had to be thrown, and the enemy remained defenseless against the attack of a close formation of legionnaires.

Battle tactics. If initially the Romans acted in battle in a phalanx, like the Greeks, then in the course of the war against the warlike mountain tribes of the Samnites, they developed a special manipulative tactic, which looked like this.

Before the battle, the legion was usually built according to the maniples, in 3 lines, in a checkerboard pattern: the first was the maniples of the hastati, the second of the principles, and the triarii stood at a slightly greater distance from them. Cavalry lined up on the flanks, and in front of the front, light infantry (velites), armed with darts and slings, marched in loose formation.

Depending on the specific situation, the legion could form the continuous formation necessary for the attack, either by closing the maniples of the first line, or by pushing the maniples of the second line into the intervals between the maniples of the first. The maniples of the triarii were usually launched only when the situation became critical, usually the outcome of the battle was decided by the first two lines.

Having rebuilt from the pre-battle (chess) order, in which it was easier to follow the system, into the combat one, the legion moved at an accelerated pace towards the enemy. The velites made up the first wave of attackers: throwing darts, stone and lead slingshots at the enemy formation, they then ran back to the flanks and into the gaps between the maniples. The legionnaires, finding themselves 10-15 meters from the enemy, brought down a hail of spears-pilums on him and, drawing their swords, began hand-to-hand combat. At the height of the battle, the cavalry and light infantry protected the flanks of the legion, and then pursued the fleeing enemy.

Camp. If the battle went poorly, the Romans had the opportunity to find protection in their camp, which was always set up, even if the army stopped for only a few hours. The Roman camp was rectangular in plan (however, where possible, natural fortifications of the area were also used). It was surrounded by a moat and a rampart. The top of the shaft was additionally protected by a palisade and guarded around the clock by sentries. At the center of each side of the camp were gates through which the army could enter or leave the camp at short notice. Inside the camp, at a distance sufficient to prevent enemy projectiles from reaching there, tents of soldiers and commanders were set up - in a once and for all definite order. In the center stood the tent of the commander - the praetorian. In front of it was free space, enough to line up an army here if the commander required it.

The camp was a kind of fortress that the Roman army always carried with them. More than once it happened that the enemy, having already defeated the Romans in a field battle, was defeated when he tried to storm the Roman camp.

Subjugation of Northern and Central Italy. Constantly improving their military organization, using the troops of the conquered peoples (the so-called allies) for their own strengthening, the Romans at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. conquered Central and Northern Italy. In the struggle for the South, they had to face such a dangerous and previously unknown enemy as Pyrrhus, the king of the Greek state of Epirus and one of the most talented commanders of the Hellenistic era.

During these long and stubborn wars, the military organization of Rome was formed and strengthened.

The Roman army was a people's militia and was completed by recruiting citizens, starting at the age of 17.

All Romans were required to serve in the army, military service was necessary to obtain government positions.

Military service was considered not only a duty, but also an honor: only full-fledged citizens were allowed to it.

The proletarians, in accordance with the constitution of Servius Tullius, did not carry out military service, slaves were not allowed into the army at all. Evasion of military duty was punished very severely: the guilty could be deprived of civil rights and sold into slavery.

In the early period of the republic, in case of military danger, the army was recruited by order of the senate and consuls, and after the end of hostilities it was disbanded.

Formally, this situation persisted for quite a long time, but already in the 4th, and even more so in the 3rd century. as a result of almost uninterrupted hostilities, the army actually becomes permanent.

Service in the army in the early years of the republic was not paid: each soldier himself had to take care of his weapons and food, only the riders received horses from the state or the appropriate amount for their purchase.

Depending on their property status, the Romans served in the cavalry, in heavy or (least wealthy) lightly armed infantry.

At the end of the 5th century BC e. a military reform was carried out, attributed to the semi-legendary hero of the Veientin and Gallic wars, Mark Furius Camillus, in accordance with which salaries were established for soldiers, state-owned weapons and food were issued, and the formation of the army was also changed.

The Roman army was divided into legions, the strength of which ranged from 4,200 to 6,000 people. Before the reform, the legion was a phalanx of heavily armed infantry up to eight rows deep. Cavalry and lightly armed infantry were usually deployed on the flanks and were used primarily as reserves.

The reform consisted in the reorganization of this sedentary phalanx and the introduction of the so-called manipulative system. Each legion was divided into 30 tactical units - maniples.

Each maniple, in turn, was divided into two centuries. The legions were now built according to the principle of the experience of warriors in three battle lines: in the first there were young warriors (the so-called hastati), in the second - more experienced (principles) and in the third - veterans (triarii).

Each line broke up along the front into 10 maniples; the maniples of the first line were separated from each other by certain intervals, the maniples of the second line lined up against the intervals of the first line, the maniples of the triarii were built behind the intervals of the second line.

The manipulative system provided considerable freedom of maneuver. The battle usually began as follows: moving forward, the system threw darts into the ranks of the enemy. A volley of darts opened the way to hand-to-hand combat, in which the main weapon was a sword, a spear, and for defense - a shield, helmet and armor.

The great advantage of the Roman order of battle lay in this combination of hand-to-hand combat with preliminary throwing of javelins at a distance.

The battle was started by lightly armed, which were built in front of the front of the legion. Then, after the main forces entered the battle, the lightly armed retreated into the intervals between the maniples, and the first line, that is, the hastati, was already fighting. If the enemy put up stubborn resistance, then maniples of principles entered the intervals of the first line, thus creating an already solid front.

Only in extreme cases, when the outcome of the battle could not be decided without the involvement of reserves, did the triarii enter the battle. The Romans had a proverb: "It came to the Triarii", which meant that the matter was taken to the extreme.

The consuls, who were commanders in chief, their assistants - legates and commanders of legions - military tribunes belonged to the highest command staff.

In the event of a particular danger to the state, the highest command was transferred to the dictator. It was an unusual magistracy created for a relatively short period (six months).

The dictator exercised the fullness of military and civil power, he appointed an assistant in the army - the head of the cavalry.

The main figure of the lower command staff was the centurion. The centurion of the first century was at the same time the commander of the entire maniple. In the early period of the republic, the armed forces usually consisted of four legions; each consul commanded two legions.

When the armies united, the consuls, according to Roman custom, commanded in turn.

In addition to the legions, which consisted exclusively of Roman citizens, there were also so-called allies in the Roman army, recruited from the conquered tribes and communities of Italy.

They were usually auxiliary troops located on the flanks of the legions. One legion relied on 5,000 foot soldiers and 900 horsemen from among the allies.

Plan of a Roman army for two legions. Schematic reconstruction according to Polybius: 1. Pretorium, the square where the commander's tent was located. 2. Forum, a square that served for gatherings. 3. Altar. 4. Premises for the Praetorian cohort, the personal guard of the commander. 5. Auxiliary cavalry barracks. 6. Legion barracks. 7. Barracks for auxiliary infantry units. 8. Barracks for detachments of veterans, newly called up for military service. 9. The square where the quaestor's tent was located. 10. Main street of the camp. 11. A street parallel to the main one, on which merchants who traded with soldiers were located. 12. The street separating the parts located directly at the fortifications from the inner part of the camp. 13. Street connecting the praetorium with the gates of the camp. 14. The gap between the defensive rampart surrounding the camp and the first barracks. 15. Camp gate.

A feature of Roman military tactics was the arrangement of fortified camps; the place where the Roman army stopped for at least one night was certainly surrounded by a moat and rampart.

Camp fortifications excluded a sudden attack by the enemy and made it possible to combine the advantage of offensive operations with defensive ones, since the camp always served as a stronghold where the army could take refuge if necessary.

Iron discipline reigned in the Roman army. Order and obedience were placed above all else, any deviation from them was punished mercilessly.

Failure to comply with the order was punishable by death.

The commander-in-chief had the right to dispose of the life of not only ordinary soldiers, but also military leaders.

If a detachment of Romans fled from the battlefield, decimation was carried out: the detachment was lined up, and every tenth was subjected to the death penalty.

Warriors who distinguished themselves on the battlefield received a promotion, silver or gold insignia, but the laurel wreath was considered the highest award.

The commander who won a major victory was given the title of emperor and a triumph was appointed, that is, a solemn entry into the city at the head of the victorious legions.

Such was the Roman military organization, which to a large extent determined the victories of Rome over other Italic peoples and further contributed to the establishment of Roman domination over the entire Mediterranean.

The history of Rome is almost continuous wars with neighboring tribes and peoples. First, all of Italy was under the rule of Rome, and then its rulers turned their eyes to neighboring lands. So, Carthage was a rival of Rome in the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal, at the head of a huge army in which war elephants made up a terrible force, almost took Rome, but his army was defeated in Africa by the legions of Scipio, who received the nickname African for this victory. As a result of the Punic Wars, which lasted twenty-three years, the Romans put an end to the power of Carthage. Greece and Macedonia soon became Roman provinces. Trophies captured in conquered cities adorned the streets of Rome and were erected in temples. Gradually, everything Greek became fashionable: the Greek language and Greek philosophical education, children were taught without fail by Greek teachers. Wealthy people sent their sons to Athens and other cities of Greece to listen to lectures by famous orators and learn oratory, because in order to win in People's meetings, courts or debates, one had to be able to convince. Famous Greek artists, sculptors and architects came to Rome and worked. In ancient Rome, there was a saying "Captured Greece captured its enemies." For many years, wars continued with the warlike tribes of the Gauls. It took Gaius Julius Caesar eight years to subjugate these lands to the power of Rome and turn Gaul into a Roman province.

Of course, the state needed a good army. “The fact that the Romans managed to conquer the whole world can only be explained by their military training, camp discipline and military practice,” wrote the Roman military historian Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius in his treatise on military affairs. The Roman army was divided into legions and auxiliary units: initially there were 4 legions, at the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. - already 25. The legions were completed exclusively by Roman citizens, persons who did not have Roman citizenship served in the auxiliary units, and they were recruited on a national basis. In the time of Caesar, the auxiliaries were not part of the regular troops, but under Octavian Augustus they became part of the standing army, they were organized in the Roman manner. Over time, the distinctions between legions and auxiliaries faded.

The legion consisted of heavily armed and lightly armed warriors, as well as cavalry. The legion was divided into thirty maniples, which, in turn, were subdivided into two centuries of 60 and 30 people. Six centuries made up a cohort. In addition to the foot soldiers, the Roman army included cavalry, which provided communications and pursued the fugitives.

Each Roman legion or centuria had its own distinctive signs. During the campaign, they were carried in front of a military unit. The sign of the legion was the image of an eagle, made of silver. If the "eagle" was captured in battle, then the legion was disbanded. Along with this, each legion had its own emblem. For the III legion of Gallica, it was the bull of Caesar, for the XIII legion of Geminus, the ibex of Augustus. The emblem of a maniple, cohort or ship was a signum, which was a spear or a silver-plated staff with a crossbar at the top, to which was attached an image of an animal (wolf, minotaur, horse, boar), an open hand or a wreath.

“The Roman army represents the most perfect system of infantry tactics invented during an era that did not know the use of gunpowder. It retains the predominance of heavily armed infantry in compact formations, but adds to it: the mobility of individual small units, the ability to fight on uneven terrain, the arrangement of several lines one behind the other, partly for support and partly as a strong reserve, and finally a system for training each individual warrior, even more expedient than the Spartan. Thanks to this, the Romans defeated any armed force that opposed them, both the Macedonian phalanx and the Numidian cavalry, ”this is how Friedrich Engels describes the Roman army (F. Engels. Articles on military history. Collected works. 2nd ed. T . eleven). Each legion was built in a certain order: in front were the hastati, armed with throwing spears and swords and delivering the first blow to the enemy, behind them were experienced heavily armed warriors - principles equipped with heavy spears and swords, in the last rows were triarii - battle-tested veterans, their weapons also consisted of spears and swords. Warriors wore helmets, copper breastplates or chain mail and metal leggings, they were protected by curved plank shields - scutums, covered with thick leather, with metal strips attached to the upper and lower edges. In the center of the shields, metal plates of a hemispherical or conical shape were fastened - umbons, which were used in battle, since their blows could stun the enemy. Legionnaires' shields were decorated with relief compositions indicating the rank of soldiers. The armament of the legionnaires consisted of short double-edged pointed swords gladius, heavy and light throwing spears. According to the treatise of Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius "On Military Affairs", swords were used for inflicting mainly stabbing, rather than chopping blows. In the time of Caesar, soft iron was used to make a throwing spear, and only the end of the point was hardened. A metal tip with small notches of a dart could pierce even a strong shield, and sometimes several. Crashing into the enemy's shield, the soft iron bent under the weight of the shaft, and the enemy could not use this spear again, and the shield became unusable. Helmets were made of metal (originally bronze, later iron) and often topped with a plume made of feathers or ponytail hair; lightly armed warriors could wear a leather cap. The metal helmet protected the shoulders and the back of the head of the warrior, the forward part of the forehead and cheek pads protected the face from the chopping blows of the enemy. Scale armor, whose metal plates were attached to a leather lining or canvas like fish scales, was worn over a shirt with sleeves made of canvas and, apparently, additionally lined with wool to soften the blows. During the reign of Emperor Tiberius, plate armor appeared, which were easier to manufacture and weighed much less than chain mail, but were less reliable.

Slingers and archers made up detachments of lightly armed warriors. They were armed, respectively, with slings (twice folded leather belts with which stones were thrown) and bows with arrows. The protective weapons of the riders were armor, leather leggings and greaves, shields; offensive - long spears and swords. In the period of the late Roman Empire, heavy cavalry appeared - cataphracts, dressed in scaly shells; moreover, the horses were also protected by the same blankets.

The best warriors were part of the Praetorian cohort based in Rome. It consisted of nine parts of 500 people each. By the beginning of the III century. n. e. their number grew to 1500. The service of the guards took place mainly in Rome, only if necessary, the emperors took the guards with them on military campaigns. As a rule, they entered the battle at the very last moments.

The Romans honored valiant soldiers with decorations. They made sure that such soldiers were visible to their commanders on the battlefield by wearing animal skins or crests and feathers. Among the awards for valor that were awarded to legionnaires of all ranks were torkves (neck hoops-hryvnias), falers (medals) worn on armor, and armille (bracers-bracelets) made of precious metals.

Roman soldiers (legionnaires) were tough and hardy. Often a warrior spent his whole life on distant campaigns. Veterans were the most experienced, battle-hardened and disciplined soldiers. All legionnaires were required to take a military oath, gave a solemn oath - sacramentum, which connected the soldier with the emperor and the state. The legionnaires repeated this oath from year to year on the day of the New Year holiday.

The Roman camp served as a reliable protection for the resting army. A description of the size of the Roman camp and its layout can be found in the military manuals and writings of Roman historians of the time. The marching orders of the Roman legions and the arrangement of the camp are described in detail by the historian and military leader Josephus Flavius ​​(c. 37 - c. 100 AD) in his "Jewish War". It should be noted that the layout of the camp was distinguished by deep thoughtfulness and logic. The camp was defended by a dug-out moat, which was about a meter deep and wide, a rampart and a palisade. Inside, the camp looked like a city: two main streets crossed it at right angles, forming a cross in plan; where the streets ended, they set up gates. The Roman army had a great influence on the life of the province. Legionnaires erected not only defensive structures, but also built roads and water pipes, public buildings. True, even the maintenance of a 400,000-strong army laid down a heavy burden on the population of the provinces.

Rome is the capital of the empire

The Romans were proud of their capital. The main temple in Rome was dedicated to the gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The main square of the city was called the Forum, at the same time it served as a market square and was located at the foot of the Capitol - one of the seven hills on which Rome was founded. Around the forum were temples, the Senate building and other public buildings. It was decorated with statues of victors and monuments in honor of the victories of the Roman arms. The so-called rostral columns were installed here, decorated with the bows of the defeated enemy ships. All important events in the life of the city took place at the Forum: the Senate met, People's Assemblies were held, important decisions were announced.

During the empire, several more forums were built in Rome, named after the emperors who built them - Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan.

The streets of Rome crossed each other at right angles. One of the first and most significant of the public roads in Rome was the Via Appia, straight as an arrow. Already in ancient times, she was called the “queen of the roads” (in Latin - regina viarum), a mention of this can be found in the work “Forest” by the Roman poet Publius Papinius Statius (40s AD - approximately 96 AD). e.). For the construction of the Roman road, a wide trench was first laid, into which sand was poured and flat stones were laid so that there was a reliable foundation. Then a layer of carefully compacted small stones and brick fragments mixed with clay or concrete was laid. The concrete consisted of so-called mine sand of volcanic origin, mixed with quicklime. It contained glass, which made it practically eternal. The top layer of the road was a large smooth stone. Small ditches were dug on both sides of the road, where rainwater flowed. It should be noted that the river water of the Tiber was, especially in summer, undrinkable, and the ancient city needed clean drinking water. To supply the city with clean water from mountain springs, Roman builders built aqueducts, the slender arches of which sometimes stretched for tens of kilometers. The invention by the Romans of a new building material - concrete - allowed them to quickly build strong and beautiful structures, and using arches to overcome large spaces.

Roman cities were connected by beautiful roads paved with stone blocks. Many of them have survived to this day. Bridges were built across rivers and deep ravines. Baths were built in the cities - public baths with lush gardens, pools with warm and cold water, gyms. The baths of imperial Rome were especially luxurious - they resembled palaces. Over time, the baths began to serve not only as a place for swimming, gymnastic exercises and swimming, but also as a place for meetings, easy communication, relaxation and entertainment. In Roman cities, they became real centers of public life. roman legion infantry antiquity

The palaces of the Roman emperors were especially luxurious. The Roman historian Lucius Annei Seneca (circa 4 BC - 65 AD), describing the "Golden House" of Emperor Nero, reported that it was so extensive that it had three porticos, it was surrounded an artificial pond resembling the sea, groves and vineyards. Gardens were filled with numerous statues, and pavilions, baths and fountains abounded in the parks. The ceiling of the dining room was lined with ivory plates, during feasts it moved apart and flowers poured from there. The walls were lined with multi-colored marble and richly decorated with gilding.

The Romans were proud of their origins. In connection with the cult of ancestors in Rome, a sculptural portrait was very popular. Masters with extraordinary accuracy conveyed a portrait resemblance to the faces of their models, noticing all the characteristic details and individual features.

Houses in Rome were usually built of brick, the roofs were trimmed with orange tiles. Only a blank wall with one door led out onto the noisy street. As a rule, in the center of the buildings there was a small courtyard with a colonnade (peristyle), around which all the rooms were located with walls decorated with frescoes and floors finished with mosaics. The courtyard was surrounded by greenery and was surrounded by a marble colonnade, decorated with fountains and magnificent statues.

For many decades, the army of Rome knew no equal. The external enemies of the republic, and then the empire, collapsed one after another under the ramming of cohorts, overshadowed by the shadow of a golden eagle. The Romans thought through everything to the smallest detail and created an organizational masterpiece of their time, deservedly called the "war machine".

During the years of the empire, the army of Rome consisted of praetorian cohorts, legions, auxiliaries (auxiliary troops), numeri, and several other types of armed units.

To begin with, a few words about the Praetorians, in fact, the personal guard of the emperor. Their cohorts were called aquitatae and about 80% consisted of foot soldiers. Each consisted of 10 centuries, commanded by a tribune. The number of cohorts and their size could vary, but on average the Roman Empire had 9-10 cohorts of 500 people each. The general command of the Praetorians was carried out by two prefects-praetorians. The identification mark of the cohorts was the scorpion. Their main location was a military camp in the vicinity of Rome. Three cohorts urbanae were also located there. As the name implies, these units were responsible for the protection and order within Rome.

Praetorians. Column of Marcus Aurelius

The emperor's personal cavalry - eqiuites singulars Augusti (from 500 to 1000 people) and his personal bodyguards - the Germans from the Batav tribe, were also present in the capital of the empire. The latter were called corporis custodes and numbered up to 500 soldiers.

The most numerous and at the same time the most famous part of the Roman army is the legions (legio). During the reform period of the emperor Octavian Augustus (31 BC - 14 AD), there were 25 legions. Each had its own number and name, originating from the place of formation or on behalf of the one who formed the legion. The common emblem of the largest military formations of Rome was the golden eagles, which the soldiers treated as sacred relics.

Each legion consisted of approximately 5000 people (mostly infantry) and included 10 cohorts. The cohort was divided into six centuries, about 80 people each. The only exception was the first cohort. It consisted of five centuries twice the number, that is, approximately 800 people.

Centuria - cohort - legion

Each legion consisted of 120 horsemen. This has been the standard amount for a very long time. Only in the time of Emperor Gallienus (253-268 AD) did the legion's cavalry strength grow to 726 men.

Among the 59 centurions of the legion, the primipilus, who commanded the first centurion of the first cohort, was the highest in rank. The legion also included five tribunes angusticlavia from among the equestrian class of Rome and one or more six-month-old tribunes who commanded the cavalry. One man served as prefect of the camp. The Senate aristocracy, or even the emperor himself in the legion, was represented by one tribune of laticlavius. The commander of the legion until the time of Emperor Gallienus was the legate.

For about 200 years, from 28 BC. and until the end of the 2nd century AD, Rome lost eight legions for various reasons, but instead formed twice as many. This brought the total number of legions to 33.

List of destroyed or disbanded legions of the Roman Empire

List of newly formed legions of the Roman Empire

	Number and name	Year of creation of the legion
	Legio XV Primigenia
	Legio XXII Primigenia
	Legio I Adjutrix
	Legio VII Gemina
	Legio II Adiutrix	69-79 AD
	Legio IV Flavia Felix	69-79 AD
	Legio XVI Flavia Firma	69-79 AD
	Legio I Minervia
	Legio II Traiana Fortis
	Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix
	Legio II Italica
	Legio III Italica
	Legio I Parthica
	Legio II Parthica
	Legio III Parthica

The second component of the Roman army, comparable in number to the legions, were auxiliary troops - auxiliaries. As a rule, units of auxiliary troops, equal in number, marched with the legions in a military campaign. Each subdivision of the auxiliaries consisted of 500 to 1000 infantry or horsemen. The divisions into which the auxiliary troops were divided were in turn divided into cohorts, alas and numeri (units).

The most privileged among the auxiliaries were cavalry units - aly. Each of them consisted of 16–24 tours of 30–32 riders each. Aloy was commanded by a prefect or tribune. The unit could include both heavily armed horsemen like cataphracts, and light horsemen, unprotected and armed only with a shield and javelins. Among other things, there were exotic alas of dromedarii - camel riders for war in the deserts.

Ala auxiliaries. Trajan's Column

The infantry cohorts of the auxiliaries were divided into six or ten centuries, depending on whether they were five hundred or thousand. They, like the cavalry alas, were commanded by tribunes or prefects. The status of auxiliary cohorts depended on who they were staffed with. For example, part of the cohorts were recruited on a voluntary basis from the citizens of Rome and were equated in status with legionnaires. The cohorts, whose status was less honorable, were free inhabitants of the Roman Empire who did not have the title of citizen. Citizenship, together with the benefits due to him, was a reward for 25 years of service in the auxiliaries.

The infantry cohorts of the auxiliary troops differed greatly both in terms of armament and functional tasks. They could be heavy, as much as possible similar to legions. They could be "medium" in terms of the severity of weapons - as a rule, such units were recruited in different regions of the empire. The light infantry of the auxiliaries were armed with various throwing devices (Balearic slingers, Cretan and Syrian archers).

There could even be cohorts of mixed auxiliaries - they included both infantry and cavalry. If it was a cohort of five hundred, then it included six centurions on foot and three horse turms. If the thousandth, then 10 centuries of infantry and six turmes of horsemen.

Auxilarium with severed head in teeth. Trajan's Column

The detachments of the auxiliaries were called by the name of the people from which their original composition was recruited (cohorts Afrorum, Thracum, Dalmatorum, ala Hispanorum, Pannoniorum), or by the name of the unit commander (the most famous example is ala Siliana). Often the name of the emperor was added to the name, by whose will the cohort was created (cohorts Augusta, Flavia, Ulpia), honorary titles (Faithful, Pious, Victorious) and clarifications (sagittariorum - archers, veteran - veteran). Cohorts often moved around the Roman Empire, fighting, and could completely lose their original ethnic composition, as the losses were replenished right on the spot where the unit was at that moment.

A separate phenomenon in the Roman army were numeri. This unit name was used in two senses. The first is any unit that was not a legion, scarlet or cohort. An example is the legate's personal bodyguards. The second meaning referred to a detachment of warriors who were not Romans and retained their ethnic characteristics. This category appeared during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81–96 AD).

Horse ala and numeri. Trajan's Column

Numeri could be mounted, on foot, mixed and varied in number. Researchers explain the appearance of such units by the fact that in the 2nd century a stream of Roman citizens and stateless Romanized inhabitants of the empire poured into the ranks of the auxiliaries. It was considered undesirable to combine barbarians and Romans in one unit, so something new had to be created.

In fact, in the 2nd century, numeri became what auxiliaries used to be. These diverse divisions not only gave Roman tactics flexibility and variety. They performed a social function, contributing to the process of Romanization of the provinces.

If we estimate the total number of troops that the Roman Empire had in the 1st-2nd centuries AD, it will be seen that it was constantly growing. At the beginning of the reign of Octavian Augustus, the army consisted of about 125 thousand legionnaires, about the same number of auxiliaries, ten thousand Roman garrison and a fleet (most likely up to 40 thousand people). Total - about 300 thousand soldiers. By the end of the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211 AD), researchers estimate that the number of troops had grown to about 450,000.

Legion diagram. From P. Connolly's encyclopedia "Greece and Rome"

The legions were stationed in different provinces of the Roman Empire. Troops based in the hinterlands provided security in the region. And if the legion stood on the border, then the territory of the war invariably stretched around it, on which wars and skirmishes did not stop. When the peace of Pax Romana was once again disturbed, it was time for a new military campaign.

To be continued

Sources and literature:

1. Vegetius Flavius ​​Renat. Brief summary of military affairs / Per. from lat. S. P. Kondratiev.- VDI, 1940, No. 1.
2. Tacitus Cornelius. Annals. Small works. History/Edition prepared by A. S. Bobovich, Ya. M. Borovsky, G. S. Knabe et al. M., 2003.
3. Flavius ​​Joseph. Jewish War / Per. from Greek Ya. L. Chertka. SPb., 1900.
4. Le Boek J. The Roman army of the era of the early empire / Per. from fr. M., 2001.
5. Makhlaiuk A.V. Army of the Roman Empire. Essays on traditions and mentality. N. Novgorod., 2000.
6. Makhlaiuk A. V. Roman legions in battle. Moscow., 2009.
7. Connolly P. Greece and Rome. The evolution of military art over 12 centuries: Encyclopedia of military history: Per. from English. M., 2001.
8. Boltinskaya L. V. To the question of the principles of manning the Roman army under Julius Claudius (according to military diplomas) / / Issues of General History. Issue. 3. Krasnoyarsk., 1973. p. 18–23.

June 22, 168 B.C. The Romans defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna. The homeland of Philip and Alexander the Great has now become a Roman province.
Several Greeks from among the Macedonians on the battlefield were sent to Rome after the battle. Among them was the historian Polybius. He was placed under the protection of the Scipios, and then he became a close friend of Scipio Aemilian, accompanying him on campaigns.
In order to enable his Greek readers to understand how the Roman army functioned, Polybius took the trouble to describe the smallest details. This scrupulousness of description is absent in another work, which has become an important source of information for us - Caesar counted on the fact that much is familiar and understandable to his readers. The description given below is based almost exclusively on the story of Polybius.

Army recruitment and organization
A cohort of a legion, consisting of 4,200 people - according to the description of Polybius.

This unit consisted of three maniples, each of which included two centuries. The maniple was the smallest independent unit of the legion. Each triarii maniple consisted of 60 veterans and 40 velite skirmishers assigned to them. Each maniple of principes and hastati consisted of 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites.
C - centurion, 3 - standard-bearer P - centurion assistant.

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected, who appeared before the stands. First he chose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The set was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who was to come forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also stepped forward and vowed to do the same as he ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the assembly for each legion, so that all were distributed to their squadrons.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and treasurer and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, which consisted of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in their prime became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). They numbered 600 people, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii. The number of people in other divisions could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion chosen by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them "hurricanes", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten detachments-maniples, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by a primipilus, a senior centurion.

So, before us appears a legion, consisting of 4,200 foot soldiers, divided into 30 maniples - 10 each for hastati, principes and triarii, respectively. The first two groups had the same structure - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites. The triarii had 60 heavy infantry and 40 velites. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent status, since the maniple was considered the smallest tactical unit. The centurions appointed the two best warriors as standard-bearers (signiferi). In the Etruscan-Roman army there were two centuries of buglers and trumpeters, at the rate of one centuria. In the description of Polybius, nothing is said about such a connection, but he constantly mentions buglers and trumpeters. It seems that now every maniple had both a bugler and a trumpeter.

If necessary, one maniple of hastati, one maniple of principles, and one maniple of triarii could act together; then they were called a cohort. Both Polybius and Livy begin to use this term in the last stages of the second Punic War, calling this word a tactical unit of legionnaires. In the II century. BC. the term has become often used to name allied formations - for example, a cohort from Cremona, a cohort of Mars, etc.

How did this legion of the 2nd century. with the legion of the Latin War (340-338 BC)?

The army of Polybius is divided into 30 maniples: 10 hastati, 10 principes and 10 triarii. The former roraria completely disappeared, as a result of which the legion was reduced from 5,000 people to 4,200. One thousand two hundred lightly armed Akcens and Levis, who were now called velites, were distributed among 30 maniples.

The triarii maniple still numbered 60 people. The maniples of principles and hastati were doubled, which well reflects the new aggressive nature of the legion - from now on it did not fight for its existence, but conquered the world.

Armor and weapons
Legionnaires were armed with a piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis, Spanish gladius). The two earliest examples of such a sword were found in Smihel, Slovenia, and they date back to about 175 BC. They have slightly tapering blades, 62 and 66 cm long. As the name implies, such swords first appeared in Spain and were possibly a variant of the Celtic sword with a pointed and elongated tip. They must have been adopted during the Second Punic War, since the swords from Smichel are certainly not the stabbing weapons that Polybius describes as being used in the Gallic War of 225-220. BC. However, these swords are quite suitable for the description of a weapon capable of cutting off a person’s head or letting out the insides - Livy wrote about him, talking about the second Macedonian war of 200-197. BC.

Polybius does not say anything about daggers, however, in the process of excavations at the site of Roman camps at the end of the 2nd century. BC. near Numantia, in Spain, several copies were found, clearly dating back to the Spanish prototypes. Hastati and principes also had two javelins each. At that time, there were two main types of pilum, which differed in the way the iron tip was attached to the wooden shaft. They could simply sit on it with the help of a tube located at the end, or they could have a flat tongue, which was fixed to the shaft with one or two rivets. The first type had a long history and was widespread, found in Celtic burials in northern Italy and in Spain. In fact, Roman specimens range in size from 0.15 to 1.2 m. The shortest was possibly the velite dart, "gasta velitaris". Polybius writes that he was bent by the blow, so he could not be picked up and thrown back.

All heavy infantrymen had a scutum - a large curved shield. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden plates glued together, which were covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. On several monuments of the times of the republic, such a shield is shown. As in earlier times, it has an oval shape with an oval umbone and a long vertical rib. A shield of this type was discovered at Qasr el-Harith in the Fayoum oasis, in Egypt. At first it was considered Celtic, but it is undoubtedly Roman.
1, 2 - view of the shield from the Fayum oasis in Egypt - front and three-quarters behind. Cairo Museum.
3 - reconstruction of a part of the shield, which shows its structure and how it was folded in half and the felt was stitched at the edge,
4 - section of the umbon.

This shield, which is 1.28 m high and 63.5 cm wide, is made of birch planks. Nine-ten such thin plates 6-10 cm wide were laid out longitudinally and laid on both sides with a layer of narrower plates laid perpendicular to the first. Then all three layers were glued together. This is how the wooden base of the shield was formed. At the edge, its thickness was slightly less than a centimeter, increasing towards the center to 1.2 cm. Such shields were covered with felt, which was folded in half at the edge and stitched through the tree. The handle of the shield was horizontal and held with a full grip. This type of handle is clearly visible on many Roman monuments. Polybius adds that such a shield had an iron umbon and iron upholstery along the top and bottom edges.

In Doncaster, the remains of a shield were found, the reconstruction of which turned out to be about 10 kg in weight. The Roman shield of that time was intended to protect the body of a legionnaire, they did not need to maneuver. During the offensive, the legionnaire held him on a straightened arm, leaning on his left shoulder. Having reached the enemy, he brought down on him, along with the shield, the weight of his entire body and tried to overturn him. Then he put the shield on the ground and, crouching down, fought over it. The four-foot height of the shield was most likely regulated, since during the siege of Numantia Scipio Aemilian severely punished a soldier whose shield was larger.
The armor of the principes and hastati consisted of a small square chest plate of about 20x20 cm, which was called a breastplate, and greaves for one leg. This last feature is also confirmed by Arrian in his Art of Tactics. He writes: "... in the Roman style, greaves on one leg in order to protect the one that is put forward in battle." I mean, of course, the left leg. The breastplate goes back to the square chest plate of the 4th century BC. BC. Not a single plate has survived to this day, although the remains of a round plate of the same type have been found in Numantia. Wealthier legionnaires had chain mail. The appearance of such chain mail, which was made according to the model of linen shells, can be seen on the victorious monument of Aemilius Paul, installed in Delphi. It was erected after the victory of the Romans over Macedonia in 168 BC. Such chain mail was very heavy and weighed about 15 kg. Evidence of this severity can be found in the story of the Battle of Trasimene - the soldiers who tried to swim then went to the bottom, drawn by the weight of their armor.

The hastati and principes had a bronze helmet adorned with three vertical feathers of black or crimson color, which were about 45 cm high. Polybius says that they were intended to make the warrior appear twice his real height.

The most common at that time was the Montefortino type helmet, which originated from the Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries. A wonderful example of such a helmet is in Germany, in the Karlsruhe Museum. It was found in Canosa di Puglia, a city to which many legionaries fled after the defeat at Cannae in 216. The helmet does indeed belong to this period, and it is very tempting to believe that it belonged to one of the Cannes legionaries.

This type of helmet had a hole in the pommel. The pommel was filled with lead, and a cotter pin was inserted into it, holding a horsehair comb. Under the back of the head was a double ring, to which two straps were attached. They crossed under the chin and fastened to the hooks on the cheek pads, holding the helmet in one position. Monuments confirm that at that time they continued to use the helmet of the Italo-Corinthian type, and the find in Herculaneum of the Samnite-Attic helmet of the 1st century. BC. indicates that this type was still widespread. Helmets were usually worn with a balaclava. On a Celtic copy of the Montefortino type, which is kept in Ljubljana, the remains of such a balaclava made of felt, the most common material for this purpose, are still visible.

The armament of the triarii was the same as that of the hastati and principes, with one exception: instead of pilums, they used long spears - gasta (hastae).

Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25-30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (ca. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick. Of the armor, the velites wore only a simple helmet, sometimes with some distinctive feature, for example, covered with a wolf skin. This was done so that the centurions could recognize the velites from a distance and see how well they fought.

Cavalry and allies
The 300 horsemen were divided into ten turmas, 30 in each. In each turma there were three decurions, who were chosen by the tribunes, and three closing ones (optiones). It can be assumed that these units of 10 people were rows, which means that the cavalry was built in a line of five or ten people deep - depending on the circumstances.

The turma was commanded by the first of the selected decurions. The horsemen were armed according to the Greek model, they had armor, a round shield (parma equestris) and a strong spear with a pointed inflow, which could continue to fight if the spear broke. The Roman horsemen on the monument in honor of the victory of Aemilius Paul, erected in Delphi (168 BC), wear chain mail, almost similar to those worn by foot soldiers. The only exception is a cut in the thighs, which allowed sitting on a horse. The characteristic shields of the Italian cavalry can be seen on many monuments.

The tribunes dismissed the legionnaires to their homes, ordering them to arm themselves in accordance with the part in which they were supposed to serve.

The allies also formed detachments of four to five thousand men, which were joined by 900 horsemen. One such detachment was assigned to each of the legions, so the word "legion" should be understood as a combat unit of about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen. Polybius does not describe the organization of the allied troops, but it most likely was similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies. In an ordinary army, consisting of two legions, the Romans fought in the center, and two detachments of allies (they were called alas, that is, wings - alae sociorum) - on the flanks. One detachment was called the right wing, and the other - the left. Each wing was commanded by three prefects appointed by the consul. A third of the best Allied cavalry and a fifth of their best foot soldiers were selected in order to form a special combat unit - extraordinaries (extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march.

At first, the soldiers did not receive pay, but since the long siege of Veii at the beginning of the 4th century. legionnaires began to pay. In the time of Polybius, a Roman infantryman received two obols a day, a centurion twice as much, and a horseman had six obols. The Roman infantryman received allowances in the form of 35 liters of grain per month, the horseman - 100 liters of wheat and 350 liters of barley. Of course, most of this food went to feed his horse and groom. A fixed payment for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse warriors. Deductions were also made for clothing and items of equipment requiring replacement.

The Allied infantry also received 35 liters of grain per person, while the horsemen received only 70 liters of wheat and 250 liters of barley. However, these products were free for them.

Preparation

Assembling at a place set by the consul, the new legions went through a rigorous "training program". Ninety percent of the soldiers had already served in the army, but they also needed retraining, and new recruits needed to go through basic training. During the empire, they were forced to "fight the pillar" using weighted weapons; no doubt something similar must have taken place in the period of the Republic. A good idea of ​​what the process of retraining experienced soldiers looked like can be obtained from the story of Polybius. Scipio arranged such retraining for his soldiers after he captured New Carthage (209).

On the first day, the soldiers had to run six kilometers in full gear. On the second day, they cleaned their armor and weapons, which were checked by their commanders. On the third day they rested, and the next day they practiced with weapons. For this, wooden swords covered with leather were used. To avoid accidents, the tip of the sword was equipped with a nozzle. The points of the darts used for exercises were also protected. On the fifth day, the soldiers again ran six kilometers in full gear, and on the sixth they again took care of their weapons, and so on.

On the march
Having completed the training, the army acted towards the enemy. The order of removal from the camp was strictly regulated. At the first signal of the trumpet, the tents of the consul and tribunes were rolled up. The soldiers then packed their own tents and equipment. On the second signal, they loaded the pack animals, and on the third, the column set out.

In addition to their own equipment, each soldier was required to carry a bunch of stakes for the stockade. Polybius says that it was not very difficult, because the long shields of the legionnaires hung on leather straps at the shoulder and the only objects in their hands were javelins. Two, three or even four stakes could be tied together and also hung on the shoulder.

Usually the column was led by extraordinaries. They were followed by the right wing of the allies, along with their convoy; then followed the first legion and its convoy, and then the second legion. He led not only his convoy, but also the pack animals of the left wing of the Allies, which formed the rear guard. The Consul and his bodyguards, mounted and on foot, specially selected from among the extraordinaries, probably rode at the head of the legions. The cavalry could form the rear guard of their unit or be placed on both sides of the wagon train in order to follow the animals. In the presence of danger from behind, the extraordinaries formed the rearguard. It should be borne in mind that 600 extraordinary riders moved in scattered formation and carried out reconnaissance - regardless of whether it was the vanguard or rearguard. Both legions, as well as both wings of the allies, changed places every other day - so that the right wing and the first legion were in front, then the left wing and the second legion. This allowed everyone in turn to enjoy the benefits of obtaining fresh water and fodder.

In the event that danger caught the legion in the open, the hastati, principes and triarii marched in three parallel columns. If an attack was expected from the right, then the hastati became the first from this side, followed by principes and triarii. This allowed, if necessary, to turn into a standard battle formation. The convoy stood to the left of each column. With the threat of an attack from the left, the hastati were built on the left side, and the convoy on the right. Such a system looks like a variant of the development of the Macedonian one. The turn into battle formation could be best done if the maniples marched not in columns, but in ranks - as the Macedonians did. In this case, the first rank was already ready to meet the enemy if necessary, and the ranks did not need to deploy the system. If the main formation of the centuria was in six ranks of ten people, then the soldiers could march six in a row. That's what they did during the empire. On the day the army could cover a distance of about 30 km, but if necessary, was able to move much further. Among those who went along with the vanguard in order to make sure that the way was open were the crossing specialists. Polybius mentions them, talking about how Scipio crossed the river. Ticinus in the winter of 218 BC